Nelson 2009 is an edited volume that contains a collection of papers reviewing broad swaths of the scientific stereotype literature. Ashmore and Del Boca 1981, Brigham 1971, and Hilton and von Hippel 1996 are all excellent article-length summaries of what was known about stereotypes up to their respective dates. Although the title emphasizes prejudice, much of the book focuses on stereotypes, and it constitutes the foundation and starting point for nearly all modern research on stereotypes, especially from the social cognitive perspective. The single most influential broad overview of stereotypes, however, is provided by Allport 1979 (originally published in 1954). The concept was first developed by Walter Lippmann in his book on public opinion, Lippmann 1922, which is worth reading even though it lacks scientific data because one can readily see the roots of much modern-day thinking in Lippmann’s ideas. The works in this section provide overviews and introductions to social scientific conceptualizations of stereotypes. Stereotypes are usually defined as beliefs about groups, prejudice as evaluation of or attitude toward a group, and discrimination as behavior that systematically advantages or disadvantages a group. Although laypeople often seem to use the terms “stereotype,” “prejudice,” and “discrimination” nearly synonymously, social psychologists draw significant distinctions between each concept. Stereotypes (the contents of people’s beliefs about groups) and stereotyping (the processes by which people-consciously or not-use their stereotypes to make sense of the world) have been studied by social psychologists for almost a century, and they remain hot topics. As this annotated bibliography will show, there is widespread disagreement in emphasis, tone, and even data regarding the extent to which stereotypes are inaccurate, irrational, and a source or result of prejudice and discrimination. The bulk of the theorizing and empirical data on stereotypes, however, comes from social psychology. << Back to RESEARCH: SCIENCE & PERCEPTION.Stereotypes represent a broad and general topic in psychology and other social sciences. To find out more about how stereotype threat, implicit bias, and racial anxiety impact the lives of black men and boys, read our report Transforming Perception. Encouraging students to think of skills as the result of hard work rather than inherent ability also helps limit stereotype threat, as does finding ways to encourage a sense of belonging. Other interventions focus more on making it as clear as possible to people why they are receiving feedback, so as to eliminate the assumption that race is the cause. Studies have indicated that moving demographic questions to the end of a standardized test can avoid triggering stereotype threat and cause significant improvement in scores. Social scientists have developed strategies to either prevent stereotype threat from being triggered or lessen its impacts. This means that white teachers of black or Latino students are less likely to give critical feedback on assignments for fear of appearing racist. White people can become so concerned about appearing to be prejudiced, that they avoid meaningful contact with people of color. Stereotype threat can affect white people as well. As we rely more and more on high-stakes standardized testing, we are also creating more and more opportunities for stereotype threat to manifest. Studies have demonstrated that stereotype threat influences performance as early as middle school. Stereotype threat is particularly relevant to education, where students are frequently told their abilities and intelligence are being tested. For the first group, a “threat” existed, the threat of confirming harmful and inaccurate stereotypes about black intelligence. In one study, black Stanford students were given a test the group that was told the test was measuring intellectual ability scored far worse than the group who were told they were merely problem solving. When we experience stereotype threat, we get distracted and our bodies undergo temporary changes.

When we worry that our behavior may confirm stereotypes about a group we belong to, our attention splits between the task at hand and our anxieties, often causing us to behave in ways that confirm the very stereotypes at the root of our anxieties. “Stereotype threat” is like a self-fulfilling prophecy.

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